di Clovis WHITFIELD
Caravaggio’s Carafes
In a recent sale in Vienna (Dorotheum, 23. October 23) a still-life painting was featured, a carafe of flowers in an octagonal frame, (Fig. 1, 58 by 43 cm ) that is clearly related to the paintings associated with the name of the Master of Hartford, after the painting that the Wadsworth Atheneum in Connecticut bought in 1942.
Characterised by Charles Sterling in the still-life show in Paris in 1952 [1] as a distinct hand, this is the unnamed soldier of Cinquecento still-life, and it is time to acknowledge him as the originator of this special group of paintings. First associated with Prospero Orsi by Claudio Strinati, and known to have worked for many years as part of Giuseppe Cesari’s team, he has been denied credit for his speciality – because he did not leave word of it, and it was distinct from his acknowledged speciality of grottesche [2] He moved with ease in Roman society, was intimate with families like the Farnese and the Mattei ; according to Baglione he was involved in all the painting projects undertaken for Pope Sixtus V (1585-1590), and also did commissions on his own account, but he remained an artisan rather than aspiring to belong to the Accademia di San Luca.
He was an important hand in this workshop that would become the most important one in Rome, and again according to Baglione he did his best to imitate Cesari’s manner, but he fell out with him, became famous for his grottesche and ‘did this and that, all sorts of paintings[3]. Labelling him for these specialities placed him among the pittori who were at best members of the Compagnia, artisans rather than belonging to the Accademia di San Luca. Nowhere were these pitture dignified with celebration, but they were an essential part of the unspoken art of interior design, undertaken by indoratori as these artisans were usually described. Even Caravaggio’s contributions to this genre were barely more esteemed, they did not even attempt intellectual narrative, but broke new ground with new subjects. From the arabesque decoration of the frame, (Fig. 2 and Fig 4 ) clearly the original, and done by the same pittore indoratore (painter gilder) who painted the picture.
Patrizia Cavazzini [4] illustrates window embrasures at Palazzo Verospi known to have been done by Prospero Orsi, including landscape vignettes, but they are not enough to recognise his hand in independent landscape paintings or in other categories Caravaggio was equally skilled in this decoration, to be seen in the painted frame he supplied (Fig. 3 ) with the Mattei Capture of Christ. He could also do sgraffito decoration, where the gilt motif is exposed by scratching away the tempera background.
The genre that Charles Sterling identified when he characterised this hand in 1952 was first of all associated with Cesare d’Arpino’s team, and the particular painting that the Wadsworth Atheneum had acquired was connected with the few examples Caravaggio painted. [5] But the latter’s compelling observations are much more fascinating than those of the ‘Hartford Master’, although many more of the latter have survived. It is curious that this hand does not seem to learn from the example, and it is not difficult to guess that this was a decorative speciality whose ingredients Caravaggio adopted but with the altogether different perception that made his art so different. The comparison of the Dorotheum glass. (Fig. 5 ) with the one he painted in the Boy bitten by a Lizard (Fig, 6 ) done very soon after Caravaggio’s arrival in Rome if Mancini associates it with the stay with Mgr Pucci – suggests that it was the very same carafe that both artists used as a stage prop.
And we know from descriptions of lost works that there were more of these paintings with glass carafes, by Caravaggio, that have gone missing, but it is the same vessel that is featured ( Fig. 7) in the foreground of the Doria Sleeping Girl (usually described as ‘Mary Magdalene’); it is not clear what the wine in it is in relation to the subject.
It suggests that they were a response to the existing decorative repertory that a painter in Giuseppe Cesari’s circle had done regularly in the past, and it is reasonable to assume that the two large still-lifes in the Galleria Borghese, which we know were part of the collection of his paintings that Scipione Borghese confiscated, represent this artist’s speciality before Caravaggio’s innovative example made such an impression. The Hartford painting itself matches the description of a work that was also among the pictures seized by Scipione [6], and comparing details (Fig. 8, Borghese Still-life; Fig 9, Modena Galleria Estense ) they are by the same hand, more easily connected together because they are not taken from from life but are the result of a practised application of previously studied details.
The complete image (Fig 10) of the Hartford still-life (76.2 by 100.4) shows the considerable mastery that the artist had in displaying an amazing variety of specimens, and is the foil to Caravaggio’s surprisingly different treatment of similar forms.
When Caravaggio arrived in Rome, it was his unusual visual perception that made such a difference when compared with the same subjects done by his artisan colleagues, and it is for this single reason that the flowers , fruit and the glass that he painted looked so naturalistic and lifelike. Without the training to paint history subjects, saints and stories devotional pictures, he limited his paintings to the things have had practised on his own, the so-called ‘portraits’ from nature that Bellori reports he had done for four or five years.
Caravaggio was no longer an apprentice but had learnt the skills his mother had entrusted him to Peterzano’s studio to acquire, but it was more of an art shop, a bottega d’arte, rather than a fast track to history painting.[7] The later arrival in Rome, at the end of 1605, that we know from the deposition of the barber’s assistant Pietro Paolo Pellegrini, forces us to recognise that Caravaggio was no apprentice but at twenty five was in full command of his prospects. Nature is the most important element even in Caravaggio’s early figure paintings, because when he arrived in Rome he had joined the artisans around the SS Trinità dei Pellegrini, those who also painted flowers and fruit decorations. His encounter with the talent spotter working for d’Arpino ensured that his focus was extended to a broader selection of subjects from appearances that he could apply his exceptional objective appreciation to. It is in reality much easier to see the ‘Master of Hartford’ pictures as belonging with the decorative idiom of Passerotti’s kitchen and fishmonger pieces, or Stradanus’ s hunting scenes, and Giuseppe Cesari obviously appreciated this ingredient as part of the repertory his studio could offer. The painting in Hartford (see Fig. 10) for whom this hand was named is the supreme example of the tradition that started in Raphael’s studio with Giovanni da Udine.
Numerous other pictures have been linked to this hand, mainly citing the relationship with the glass carafes that Caravaggio himself made famous. The artisans that Caravaggio joined in Rome in 1595/96 cultivated a repertory of features that they could offer from, to make a themed decoration, ’grotesques’ that were endlessly capricious, landscape vignettes, and they would keep copy books in which they would record the appearance of the flowers, birds, animals, landscapes, heraldic motifs, staffage figures that they had collected likenesses of, and could be used with endless variety as they represented the range of images that each artisan ‘knew’.
In contrast it is the perception that Caravaggio possessed from the start that made the objects, fruits and flowers he painted so different. None of the innovations he introduced, the fortuitous observations he made are repeated in the ‘Master of Hartford’ idiom, because this artisan already had a career behind him of providing this kind of decoration. If this was not Prospero Orsi, we have to find another character who fits his profile, and could like this turcimanno or manager use his own contacts to promote the unusual talent he had met, from being a mere artisan to figure painting, to accepted subjects with iconography that Roman patrons would recognise. We can recognise the devices he introduced, like the comb (Fig.11 , Detroit Institute of Arts) in the painting that so became Martha and Mary, or the carafe of flowers (Fig 12) he put in his version of the Detroit painting, now in Nantes, Musée des Beaux-Arts.
This painting (Fig 13, canvas, 97 by 130 ), usually given to ‘a follower of Saraceni’ is actually characteristic of Prosperino’s figure style, and shows that no religious story was present from the start. This was at the time Caravaggio graduated to themed subjects, and then he was at a disadvantage, not realising that he had to choose a model with a beard to look like Christ in the painting of the Supper at Emmaus, which is more of a feast for the eyes of the amazing still-life in the foreground than an orthodox interpretation of the bible story.
Prospero Orsi and Tarquinio Ligustri were two artisans from Viterbo who had been recruited by an ambitious prelate in the neighbourhood of the SS Trinità dei Pellegrini in Rome to work on the decoration of a palazzo that would raise the name Petrignani to the level of the Riarii, the Farnese, the Buoncompagni, the Peretti di Montalto, or indeed the Barberini.
Monsignor Fantino’s project was on a grand scale, designed by the architect Ottaviano Mascarino, who was also a decorative painter, but an innovative designer who had created the spectacular oval staircase at the Quirinal. With Caravaggio as Fantino’s principal artist his palazzo would be even more sensational, but already exceptional because there was no programme to follow: he accepted that an artist should study from nature, and from life. This was an attitude that was held by a large proportion of artists, and although it was also promoted by the interpretation of Aristotle’s Poetics in the new translation by Castelvetro, this literary argument did not concern the artisans there who seem to have been left with a lot of empty walls to fill.
These artisans kept painted examples of the fruit and flowers they could provide (like Giovanni da Udine) so as to reproduce their characteristics accurately: Giuseppe Franco (1565-1625) who specialised in painting birds, kept a number of birdcages in order to take their likenesses. This kind of work could be sampled, like a running pattern on a moulding or repetitions in embroideries.
Fantino was largely absent from Rome and the interiors did not have the benefit of a programme; so instead of his neighbour Giuseppe Cesari, (who would have done a themed series of history paintings) Fantino called upon a number of artisans, pittori indoratori as Patrizia Cavazzini has described them [8] ready not only for gilding, but painted decoration, a repertory of designs that they could be counted on to repeat. They came prepared with samples of their trade: Tommaso Salini kept a whole range of lucidi or tracings that would be used for repetitions, and Prosperino must have had a similar variety of images that could be assembled in new commissions. The great variety of game, and fruit, flowers and vegetables in the two large still-lifes in Villa Borghese (coming from Giuseppe Cesari’s collection) represent the range of his repertory for this kind of interior. As we know from Patrizia Cavazzini’s studies [9] many pittori indoratori worked from home, and kept a range of paintings that could be repeated on demand.
They would contract to paint the library or other spaces in green or another colour, and intersperse the shelves with motifs and ornament, surround the panels with grotesque or running patterns. The kind of still-life represented by the canvas at Dorotheum (see Fig. 1) is typical of their interior design, and would have been paired with matching octagons or circular ‘punctuations’. We look for indications of authorship, but in reality these paintings were also the product of several hands, like the painters in a porcelain factory.
Many of them were obviously in fresco, a medium Caravaggio did not work in. It was exceptional that Orsi was able to salvage what he had done from the redundant decorations of Palazzo Petrignani [10] where Caravaggio had painted several innovative subjects like the Fortune Teller and the Sleeping Girl (converted opportunistically into a Mary Magdalene). But the decorations there were never seen as a whole before Pietro Aldobrandini, the most powerful Secretary of State appointed by his uncle the Pope [11], terminated Fantino’s career and prospects on considerations of morality in 1597/98, but descriptions exist that document the musicians, drinkers and still-lifes that inspired a whole generation of Caravaggesque painters.
Orsi and Ligustri were seemingly inseparable, working first for Petrignani, then going on to Massimo Massimi and to Duca Altemps, and it is significant that both the latter came to have a range of paintings by and after Caravaggio[12]. Be sampled, like a running pattern on a moulding or repetitions in embroideries; Caravaggio himself did this kind of work which we can see in the arabesque decoration around the Medusa shield (Uffizi, Florence) and also the punched gilt pattern on the helmet of the arresting soldier in the Capture of Christ. There were other painted and sgraffito instances, but it is impossible to recognise a particular hand in this kind of artisan production, and the dispersal of the Petrignani paintings not only prevented their exposure, but also led to a change in the subjects that Caravaggio would turn to.
Caravaggio’s unique ability, which Mancini would call osservanza del vero would endow the same object with an entirely different perception. It was this quality that Federico Borromeo found exceptional in the Basket of Fruit that he bought probably in a street market, when he describes the range of work that this artist did, equally Del Monte when he came across the Carafe of Flowers without knowing who had done it; it is clear that this kind of painting commanded very modest prices, in the range of a scudo or two. We have seen how unrecognised artists found it difficult to sell their work, like Van Gogh who sold nothing. although there was a regular demand for likenesses of famous people, saints and heroes.
When Mgr Fantino fell from grace in 1598, ending his aspiration to become Cardinal and to continue the artistic patronage that he had hoped would cement the name Petrignani in high Roman society, it was not only his Palazzo that crumbled, but the art that he had sponsored also fell from grace. The brilliant architect Mascarino fell into bankruptcy, and the original art that he had commissioned for Fantino was also damaged by association, as well as disappearing from view. We know this Monsignore indulged in an unacceptable spate of molesting that was the reason for his dismissal, and this does also seem to be the background to the notable libidinous pictures by Caravaggio that came on the market at this time ‘some paintings did not possess that decent modesty that belongs to those virgin arts
’ alcune pitture non serbavano quell’ onesto pudore che si addice alle vergini arti’,
as the Jesuit priest appointed by the Pope advised the artists of the Academy of St Luke.
Clement VIII was so keen to erase any suspicion of heresy (sospetto d’eresia) that he would have taken down Michelangelo’s Last Judgment in the Sistine Chapel, for the modesty fig leaves Daniele da Volterra had painted over the nude figures was not, for him, enough. He sent a Jesuit priest to read a lesson to the artists of the Accademia di San Luca that they should paint ‘only honest and praiseworthy subjects and avoid anything suggestive or dishonest.’, All the paintings Caravaggio had painted as decorations while in Palazzo Petrignani did not live up to the puritanical zeal of the Church under Clement VIII, and while some of them would be closeted for a half century, or altered to look like acceptable subjects, or simply given new titles, they were tainted by the scandal that had closed Fantino’s career, a nuisance that Pietro Aldobrandini made an example of, just as he had by expropriating the huge fortune of Beatrice Cenci when he had her executed.
This was the time when there were opportunities to pick up a ‘new’ kind of image for no money, as Mancini reports, with the Fortune Teller costing a mere eight and half scudi, and the St John the Evangelist that Mancini himself bought for five, a Boy bitten by the Lizard picked up for one and a half scudi. Evidently discouraged by the failure of the project, Caravaggio ceased concentrating on this speciality of decoration and developed an ability to substitute the observation of nature with that of figures, which he had already found were a more rewarding subject. His mentor Prosperino evidently encouraged him in this direction, and it must have been he who saw the potential of using Caravaggio’s formidable talent to work from actors who could play the parts of characters in the Bible and so reach new patrons. But the period of the Gipsy Fortune Tellers was regarded among connoisseurs as the heyday of the artist’s creativity , and Mancini took little interest in his adoption by evangelical Christian patrons.
It has been curious to see the glass carafe as a recurring feature in the ‘Master of Hartford’ paintings, and so regarded part of the artistic revolution, but none of them in fact reflect the very different observation that Caravaggio introduced to the same subject. It becomes clearer that Prospero was indeed close to his protégé, pointing him in the direction of subjects that were more acceptable to the patronage he himself was familiar with. It seems quite likely that it was he who transformed the subject in some of Caravaggio’s early paintings. Pastoral subjects like the Shepherd Corydon (Galleria Doria Pamphilj and Gallerie Capitoline) were obviously tainted with the humor peccante (sinful propensity) of Caravaggio’s first patron, Fantino Petrignani, and they would be closeted or re-named as acceptable subjects, like St John the Baptist (but even so they were not kept with other ‘decent’ themes because the suspicion of heresy (sospetto d’eresia) stayed with them).
The carafes in the other ‘Master of Hartford’ still-lifes follow a successful formula, and their relationship to the one in the Boy bitten by a Lizard even convinced some to think of them as belonging to another phase of Caravaggio’s development. But they are not as naturalistic, the reflections of light on the surface of the glass is always a feature that does not give away its source. The fruit, flowers and insects, butterflies. (Fig 14, detail of ‘Hartford’ still-life ) are increasingly ‘botanical’ without ever giving the impressions that they were ‘al viso’ or ‘as seen’. (Fig 15)
This detail of the butterfly in the Vienna still-life gives the impression of not being from life, but partly the artist’s invention.
The reflections in the glass, particularly (Fig 16 here the carafe in the ‘Hartford’ still-life, Fig. 10) are a feature that corresponds to a necessary element rather than the chance actual appearance, and there is no recording of the difference of the ray of light as it is refracted by passing through the liquid inside.
The leaves are indeed seen from actual specimens, but without the chance incidence of light in dewdrops or the observation of damage or decay
The stems of the flowers are represented, but as a formal presence rather than an observed detail. Orsi seems however to have completed an unfinished Caravaggio where there could have been
This is the work that has been associated with Gaspare Celio’s sighting of him painting ‘a boy playing the lute (‘un putto che sonava un leuto’) at Prospero’s house (‘in casa di esso Prospero’). First linked to the Hermitage painting by Fausto Nicolai [13], and further by Riccardo Gandolfi [14], this is the first mention of the Lute Player but it cannot be of the original version that has prominent details missing from the picture in St Petersburg but noted by Baglione in his description of the painting he saw at Del Monte’s.
The confidence with which Caravaggio painted the Hermitage painting is also evident in its rapid execution, with less detail than before, and without the demanding virtuoso performance of the carafe of flowers.
That was left unfinished and the glass carafe (and the flowers) are completely consistent with the ‘Hartford Master’s’ handling.
As it was incomplete, when it came to selling it, (in 1612) Orsi evidently put in the missing glass carafe, and without the original[15] (96 by 121, Fig. 18 ) to hand, painted it in his own manner. Del Monte would not have allowed a replication of his painting, that remained in his collection until the 1628 sale after his death, but Caravaggio himself must have done the second version as a gesture of gratitude to his agent ( who helped him get the commission for the Contarelli Chapel paintings). It must have remained unfinished – in his stock – until he sold it on 1st September 1612, to Duca Angelo Altemps. The missing Carafe of Flowers by Caravaggio that Del Monte had bought before bringing the artist to Palazzo Madama must have been substantially like this feature in the Lute Player canvas that he painted together with the Musicians shortly afterwards. But unfortunately this painting did not survive, the last mention of it is in the 1628 Del Monte sale, when it was bought by Cardinal Antonio Barberini, so joining the largest collection of Caravaggios in the Seicento.
Prosperino’s activity in the d’Arpino studio has not been distinguished and it is difficult to reconstruct because it is impossible to separate out which parts he was involved with. It is clear, however, that as an active studio, it had various specialists who could be relied on to do their parts. This collaboration came to an end when Orsi ‘betrayed’ d’Arpino by helping Caravaggio to the commission for the Contarelli chapel, which he had been awarded but not completed. Whether or not Prosperino continued to take part in other joint projects, he undoubtedly prospered as a dealer, and the commissions secured from the Mattei family were a new and continuing source of revenue for him as he procured copies that Caravaggio’s earlier patrons had previously been unwilling to make available. So the carafes that has inspired Caravaggio were not available to toast with any more, and as his eyesight failed, he relied more and more on trading the ‘Caravaggio’ marque he had done so much to promote. 13
Clovis WHITFIELD Umbria 3 Marzo 2024
NOTE
[1] C. Sterling, in La Nature Morte de l’Antiquité à nos Jours, , Paris, 1952
[2] See C. Whitfield, ‘Prospero Orsi, interprète du Caravane, Revue de l’Art, no. 155, 2007 – 1 p. 9-19. 157 – 3, p. 71, also Davide Dotti, L’origine della natura morta in Italia, Caravaggio e il Maestro di Hartford, Galleria Borghese, 2016/2017, ?il mistero irrisolto del Maestro di Hartford, p. 123-145.
[3] & hora per l’uno, hora per l’altro andava prendendo opere, e formando pitture (Baglione, Vite, p. 299/300)
[4] P. Cavazzini, Painting as Business in Early Seventeenth Century Rome, Penn State, 2008, p. 23
[5] For instance, in F. Paliaga’s study Studi sulla caraffa di fiori di Caravaggio Rome 2012, p. 37 these pictures are regarded solely as a result of Caravaggio’s pictorial innovations, and never as precursors
[6] No. 47 in the 1607 list, published by Paola della Pergola La Galleria Borghese, I Dipinti, 1959. Un quadro pieno di frutti et fiori e due caraffe con cornici nere, the same list also included the two large still-lifes as Nos. 38 and 39.
[7] An earlier apprentice in Peterzano’s studio had been set to paint fans, for a painter’s studio was also the place for crafts rather than figure painting.
[8] Painting as Business in Seventeenth Century Rome, Penn State, 2008, p- 19/20
[9] Apart from the 2008 volume, in Roma al tempo di Caravaggio, several articles including ‘Frutti fiori e animali nel mercato artistico romano del primo Seicento’ , in Roma al tempo di Caravaggio, Saggi 2012, p 433 – 447
[10] Many of the paintings from the decorations of Palazzo Petrignani were salvaged by Orsi, and would later be sold by him when it was clear the artist would not return to Rome : For the purchases made from Orsi by Duca Angelo d’Altemps, see L. Spezzaferro, ‘Caravaggio accettato. Dal rifiuto al mercato’,in Caravaggio nel IV centenario della Cappella Cantarelli, Atti del convegno Internazionale 2001, ed. C. Volpi, 2002 p.23-50 See also F. Nicolai, “Trading Caravaggio: Giovanni Angelo Altemps, Prospero Orsi and the Roman Art Market of Caravaggesque Painting”, in When Michelangelo was modern, Collecting Patronage and the Art Marketing in Italy ed Inge Reist, Leiden/Boston, 2022, p. 185-206.
[11] Although Cinzio Aldobrandini (b. 1551) was also made Secretary of State (1592) , he never challenged the dominant role that his much younger. (b. 1571) cousin assumed when he was appointed to the same rank the following year .
[12] The Massimi apart from the Crowning with Thorns and Ecce Homo, by Caravaggio himself, had an Incredulity of St Thomas, David and Goliath, Judith and Holofernes two Carafes with Flowers (see F. Nicolai, Mecenati a confronto , 2008, p. 33)
[13] F. Nicolai, Mecenati a confronto, Rome, 2008, p. 67,
[14] R. Gandolfi, ‘Notizie del giovane Caravaggio dall’inedita biografia di Gaspare Celio’, in Il giovane Caravaggio “sine ira et studio”, ed. A. Zuccari, Roma, 2017, p. 27, 29, n. 33, R. Gandolfi, ‘Il ‘turcimanno’ del Caravaggio’. Prospero Orsi tra pittura e mercato nella Roma del Seicento’, in Le collezioni degli artisti in Italia, Roma, 2019, p. 93, idem, Le Vite degli artisti di Gaspare Celio, (1614) ed., Firenze 2021, p. 320, n. 1064.
[15] Nor the first ‘Carafe of Flowers’ that Del Monte had bought before knowing Caravaggio.
Versione in Italiano
Le caraffe di Caravaggio